Woven into the fabric of early Christian confession, the Apostles’ Creed arose not as a rigid composition from a single moment in history, but as the living voice of the ancient Church—shaped by worship, sharpened by heresies, and nourished by the baptismal waters of faith. Its final form, though post-apostolic, carries within it the rhythm of apostolic witness, the simplicity of primal devotion, and the enduring unity of Christian belief across centuries and cultures.
Sources and Scholars of the Creed
A rich tapestry of scholarship surrounds the Apostles’ Creed and its development. Among the foremost contributors, Rufinus of Aquileia (d. 410) offered an early exposition (Expositio in Symbolum Apostolorum), preserved in the appendix of Fell’s 1682 edition of Cyprian and reprinted in Migne’s Patrologia Latina, Volume XXI.
James Ussher, the learned Protestant Archbishop of Armagh (d. 1655), made groundbreaking strides with his De Romanae Ecclesiae Symbolo Apostolico vetere, published in London in 1647 and later reprinted in his Works (Dublin, 1847, vol. VII). He pioneered a critical history of the Creed based on ancient manuscripts he unearthed.
John Pearson, Bishop of Chester (d. 1686), enriched Anglican theology through his widely influential Exposition of the Creed (1659), revised by E. Burton (Oxford, 1847; New York, 1851). Peter King, Lord Chancellor of England (d. 1733), published his History of the Apostles’ Creed in 1702.
The Calvinist theologian Herman Witsius (d. 1708) contributed a rigorous scholastic inquiry with his Exercitationes Sacrae (Amsterdam, 1700; Basel, 1739), translated into English by Fraser in 1823.
Among Lutheran works, Eduard Köllner’s Symbolik aller christlichen Confessionen (Hamburg, 1837, pp. 6–28) stands alongside August Hahn’s seminal Bibliothek der Symbole und Glaubensregeln der apostolischen Kirche (Breslau, 1842; rev. ed., 1877).
In the 19th century, American Reformed theologian J. W. Nevin explored the Creed doctrinally in the Mercersburg Review (1849). Roman Catholic scholar Peter Meyers defended its apostolic origin in De Symboli Apostolici Titulo (Trier, 1849). W. W. Harvey’s two-volume History and Theology of the Three Creeds (London, 1854) provided a balanced Anglican treatment.
Charles A. Heurtley’s Harmonia Symbolica (Oxford, 1858), Michel Nicolas’ skeptical Le Symbole des Apôtres (Paris, 1867), and J. Rawson Lumby’s The History of the Creeds (London, 1873; 2nd ed., 1880) each advanced the scholarly conversation.
F. J. A. Hort’s Two Dissertations (Cambridge, 1876) on μονογενὴς θεός and Eastern creeds brought textual precision to bear, while F. B. Westcott’s The Historic Faith (1883) and Philip Schaff’s own Creeds of Christendom (vol. I. pp. 3–42; vol. II. pp. 10–73) served as touchstones of ecclesial history.
The Rule of Faith in the Early Church
In its narrowest sense, the regula fidei—or “rule of faith” (κανὼν τῆς πίστεως)—was a succinct summary of Christian doctrine, organically born from the pastoral necessities of catechesis and baptismal preparation. This doctrinal distillation, functioning as a symbolum or identifying “sign,” differentiated orthodox Christians from pagans and heretics alike. Rooted in Peter’s confession (Matt. 16:16) and framed by the trinitarian baptismal formula (Matt. 28:19), these early symbols formed the backbone of Christian identity.
No single uniform creed prevailed across the early Church. Rather, local churches—guided by the shared baptismal framework and perhaps by a primitive archetype—crafted creeds that suited their pastoral contexts. These confessions took declarative or interrogative form, varied in length and structure, yet remained united in substance.
We encounter these early expressions in the writings of Irenaeus (c. 180), Tertullian (c. 200), Cyprian and Novatian (c. 250), Origen, Gregory Thaumaturgus, Lucian of Antioch, and Eusebius of Caesarea (325), among others. With them stand Marcellus of Ancyra (340), Cyril of Jerusalem (350), Epiphanius (374), Rufinus (390), and the Apostolic Constitutions.
Despite their diversity, these confessions manifest striking unity in core beliefs. Tertullian rightly declared the regula fidei “una omnino, sola immobilis et irreformabilis”—utterly one, unchangeable, and unalterable. Their divergence was akin to the plurality of Puritan congregational creeds in New England—distinct in form but uniform in principle, all rooted in the Westminster standards.
East and West: Divergent Developments
Eastern forms of the creed tended to be longer, more speculative, and polemical, shaped by the theological ferment of the Greek-speaking world. As heresies multiplied in the East, so did doctrinal clarifications. In time, these regional formulas gave way to the authority of the Nicene Creed (325, 381, 451), which—ratified by ecumenical councils—remains the definitive confession of the Eastern Orthodox Church. This is the only truly ecumenical Creed of Christendom, having been received in the West as well, though with the contested addition of Filioque, which later became a doctrinal rift between East and West.
By contrast, the Western creeds—emerging from North Africa, Gaul, and Italy—tended toward brevity and unity. Over time, they coalesced into the Roman Symbol, which became the foundational Creed of the Latin Church and her ecclesial daughters.
The Apostles’ Creed and Its Origins
The Roman Symbol eventually acquired the title Apostles’ Creed, borne by the tradition that the twelve Apostles, before their dispersion, composed it—each contributing one article under divine inspiration. Though beloved by the Roman Church and poeticized by Longfellow, this legend arose no earlier than the fourth century. The diversity of ante-Nicene creeds and the progressive development of the Apostles’ Creed itself render such apostolic authorship historically untenable.
Nevertheless, the Creed’s antiquity is not in doubt. Its earliest extant form—shorter than the current text—appears in manuscripts dating from the third or even second century. It may have been imported from the East or developed in Rome, aligning closely with the Greek creed of Marcellus of Ancyra (c. 340) and the form found in the Psalter of King Æthelstan. Until the late third century, Greek remained the liturgical and theological language of the Roman Church.
The Longer Text and Its Evolution
The fuller text of the Apostles’ Creed, as we know it today, emerges only in the sixth or seventh century. It incorporates theological clauses absent in earlier versions, such as “he descended into Hades,” the epithet “catholic” for the Church, “the communion of saints,” and “the life everlasting.” These additions were drawn from Gallican and African versions and gradually assimilated into the Roman formula.
Though its final form is post-apostolic, its content, rhythm, and spirit bear the unmistakable imprint of apostolic faith. It stands alongside the Te Deum and the Gloria in Excelsis—hymns of sacred antiquity with no known author but resonant with the spiritual ethos of early Christianity.
Theological Structure and Liturgical Power
The Apostles’ Creed is structured around the historical unfolding of the triune God: the Father as Creator, the Son as Redeemer, and the Spirit as Sanctifier. It opens with the mystery of creation and closes with the hope of resurrection and life everlasting. Christ stands at its center, not as a doctrine to be dissected, but as a person to be confessed.
Unlike theological treatises, the Creed speaks not in scholastic categories but in the living voice of the Church. It is a confession of sacred history, not abstract speculation. In its simplicity, it is profoundly accessible; in its brevity, remarkably complete. It remains ideally suited for catechetical instruction, liturgical proclamation, and personal devotion.
Despite the vast array of creeds that followed, the Apostles’ Creed retains a unique authority, venerable with age yet ever fresh with spiritual vitality. It is the Creed of creeds, as the Lord’s Prayer is the Prayer of prayers. Though not formally ecumenical in the East, it is the Western Church’s most universal confession—a doctrinal commonwealth shared by Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran, and Reformed traditions.
Note on the Legendary Attribution
The tradition that each Apostle contributed a distinct article gained currency after the sixth century. A pseudo-Augustinian sermon elaborates this pious fiction:
“Ten days after the Ascension, when the disciples were gathered in fear of the Jews, the Lord sent the promised Paraclete. Inflamed by His coming and filled with miraculous speech, they composed the Creed.”
– Peter: “I believe in God the Father Almighty, Creator of heaven and earth.”
– Andrew: “And in Jesus Christ, His only Son, our Lord.”
– James: “Who was conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of the Virgin Mary.”
– John: “Suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, died, and was buried.”
– Thomas: “He descended into Hades; on the third day He rose again from the dead.”
– James (son of Alphaeus): “He ascended into heaven and sits at the right hand of God the Father Almighty.”
– Philip: “From there He will come to judge the living and the dead.”
– Bartholomew: “I believe in the Holy Spirit.”
– Matthew: “The holy catholic Church, the communion of saints.”
– Simon the Zealot: “The forgiveness of sins.”
– Thaddeus: “The resurrection of the body.”
– Matthias: “And the life everlasting.”
Though historically implausible, this legend reveals the early Church’s reverence for the Creed as a legacy of apostolic witness—a spiritual mosaic shaped by the hands of many, but guided by one divine Architect.
