In the shadows of early Christian history, where fact and legend often intertwine, the name of Sixtus of Rome stands enigmatic—a figure cloaked more in maxims than martyrdom, known not for doctrinal controversy or ecclesiastical decree, but for a treasury of wisdom literature that echoes with both the cadence of Hellenic philosophy and the ethos of Christian virtue. His legacy, whether truly his or merely attributed, survives not in conciliar acts, but in aphorisms that sought to express the moral conscience of a nascent faith grappling with the world.
The Enigmatic Legacy of Xystus
Xystus—rendered in Latin as Sixtus or Sextus—was recorded as the sixth bishop of Rome, presiding over the Christian flock during the reign of Emperor Hadrian, approximately between 119 and 128 AD. Aside from his episcopacy, historical memory of him remains scant. What has survived is a body of pithy and penetrating moral sayings, traditionally attributed to him, that were once widely cherished within the ancient Church.
These aphorisms, composed in Greek and translated into Latin by the presbyter Rufinus of Aquileia, came to be revered as a spiritual Enchiridion—a manual of condensed wisdom resembling both the Hebrew Proverbs and the ethical pronouncements of Christ’s Sermon on the Mount. Yet their content, however lofty and sublime, is entirely devoid of overt Christian reference. Neither the name of Christ, nor the apostles or prophets, are ever mentioned. The sayings are theistic and moral, tinged at times with pantheistic hue, yet strikingly lofty in ethical tone.
Whether these maxims originated with a Christian bishop or a Hellenic moralist remains one of the more curious questions of patristic literature. If indeed the fruit of a pagan philosopher, they stand remarkably close to the spirit of Christian ethics—more so, perhaps, than the writings of Seneca, Epictetus, or even Marcus Aurelius. Yet the popularity of the work among early Christians, and the shaping hand of later Christian redactors such as Rufinus, suggest a textual evolution that renders it ecclesiastically significant, if not apostolically authentic.
Manuscript Tradition and Editions
The sayings of Xystus, known under various titles such as Sententiae Sexti, were first published in print by Symphorian Champerius in Lyon, 1507, under the title Sixtii Xysti Anulus. They reappeared in Wittenberg in 1514 with the Carmina Aurea of Pythagoras; then in Basel by Beatus Rhenanus in 1516. The Maxima Bibliotheca Veterum Patrum (Lyon, 1677, vol. III, pp. 335–339) preserved them under the heading Xysti vel Sexti Pythagorici philosophi ethnici Sententiae, attributed by Rufinus. U. G. Siber’s 1725 Leipzig edition erroneously identified the author as Sixtus II. A critical edition encompassing Greek, Latin, and Syriac texts was prepared by Gildemeister in Bonn, 1873.
The Syriac version, published by Paul de Lagarde in his Analecta Syriaca (Leipzig and London, 1858), draws from seven manuscripts preserved in the British Museum—the oldest predating the year 553. Though the Syriac text is incomplete, it offers a rare glimpse into the broad transmission and enduring appeal of the work.
The Question of Authorship
Origen, writing in the early third century, cites the Gnomae Sexti (γνῶμαι Σέξτου) in two instances, acknowledging their esteem and circulation among Christians. Yet he does not designate the author as either bishop or believer. Rufinus, on the other hand, not only translated the work but interpolated additional material and ascribed it to Sixtus, bishop of Rome and martyr.
Jerome, a master of both Scripture and the classics, sharply rebuked this attribution. He denounced Rufinus for attaching the name of a Christian martyr to what he regarded as a product of a godless, though morally elevated, Pythagorean thinker. The Stoic flavor of the sayings, he argued, better served the advocates of impassibility and Pelagian notions of sinlessness than the evangelical faith.
Augustine initially followed the tradition that identified the author with one of the Roman bishops named Sixtus, but later withdrew his affirmation—likely under the influence of Jerome’s criticism. Later Byzantine theologians, including Maximus the Confessor and John of Damascus, affirmed the Roman origin of the sayings. Gennadius simply referred to them as the Sententiae Xysti. Pope Gelasius, in a later decree, formally rejected the work as spurious, alleging heretical authorship.
Philosophical Parallels and the Stoic Hypothesis
Modern scholarship, from Fontanini and Fabricius to Mosheim and Brucker, has largely dismissed the notion of episcopal authorship. Instead, they credit the collection to Quintus Sextius (Q. S. Pater), a Stoic philosopher of noble mind, who reputedly declined a senatorial appointment from Julius Caesar. Seneca held him in high esteem, praising his rigorous self-examination and ethical rigor. He avoided animal flesh, imposed daily self-scrutiny, and lived with an almost monastic restraint.
Due to this pagan origin theory, many modern church historians have passed over the Enchiridion in silence. Scholars such as Neander, Gieseler, Baur, and Donaldson scarcely mention it.
The Syriac Revival and Ewald’s Assessment
Yet the work has not been entirely consigned to oblivion. Paul de Lagarde revived interest by editing the Syriac version, while Heinrich Ewald extolled its virtues in his Geschichte des Volkes Israel (vol. VII, pp. 321–326). For Ewald, this text marks the dawn of Christian ethical consciousness emerging into the world—not in the form of theological declaration, but through the quiet force of moral vision. “The Christian conscience,” he writes, “here speaks for the first time to the world, instructing it in wisdom and righteousness.”
Still, Ewald’s admiration may be overreaching. That a Christian bishop, writing in the second century, would compile a manual of ethical teachings entirely void of any explicit reference to Christ remains a serious objection. If Christian in origin, the silence is inexplicable.
Selected Maxims of Xystus
The Sententiae comprise 430 aphorisms of moral gravity and spiritual insight. A few selected examples are worthy of special notice for their resonance with biblical principles:
– “Fidelis homo, electus homo est”—The faithful man is the chosen man.
– “Omne peccatum impietatem puta”—Count every sin as impiety; it is not the hand or the eye that sins, but the misuse of the hand or eye.
– “Deo gratias praestat homo, qui quantum possibile est vivit secundum Deum”—He gives thanks to God who, as far as possible, lives according to God.
– “Si quid non vis scire Deum, istud nec agas, nec cogites”—If you would not have God know something, then do not do it or think it.
– “Sapiens vir, et pecuniae contemptor, similis est Deo”—The wise man who scorns riches is like unto God.
– “Templum sanctum est Deo mens pii, et altare est cor mundum”—The mind of the godly is God’s temple, and the pure heart is His altar.
– “Bona mens chorus est Dei; mala mens chorus daemonum”—A good mind is the choir of God; an evil mind the choir of demons.
– “Omne tempus, quo Deo non cogitas, hoc puta te perdidisse”—Count all time lost in which you have not thought of God.
– “Ratio quae in te est, vitae tuae lux est”—The reason that is in you is the light of your life.
– “Filius Dei est, qui haec sola pretiosa ducit quae et Deus”—He is a son of God who counts only what God values as precious.
Many of these sayings find echoes in Scripture, often uncannily so. The comparisons with Matthew 5:29, Matthew 22:21, 1 Corinthians 3:16–17, Luke 6:31, and Mark 7:18–21 further suggest that either the text drew upon Christian sources, or Christian tradition later infused it with its own moral vocabulary.
Reflections on Ethical Wisdom
In these sayings, regardless of their true origin, one perceives the convergence of the Hellenistic moral tradition with the emerging Christian vision of the virtuous life. They call the soul upward—to contemplation, purity, simplicity, restraint, love of neighbor, and reverence for the divine. They extol a faith not merely of creeds, but of conduct; not only of belief, but of becoming.
Whether penned by a Christian bishop named Sixtus or by a Stoic sage named Sextius, the Sententiae remain a remarkable monument of moral instruction. Their survival across centuries, languages, and theological boundaries testifies to their enduring power to speak to the human conscience.
Footnotes
[1] Irenaeus (Adv. Haer. 1.III.c.3, § 3) identifies Xystus as the successor of Clement, Evaristus, and Alexander. Eusebius (H.E. IV.5) confirms his ten-year episcopate. Jaffé (Regesta Pontificum Romanorum, p. 3) dates his pontificate between 119 and 128. Sixtus II, also martyred, died in 257 or 258, and was sometimes confused with the author of the Enchiridion.
[2] The aphorisms of Xystus are preserved in Bibliotheca Maxima Veterum Patrum, vol. III, 335–339. See selections above.
[3] For papal rejection, consult Biblioth. Max., III. 525, and the treatises of Fontanini and Fabricius.
[4] Modern scholars such as Neander, Gieseler, Baur, and Donaldson generally omit the work from ecclesiastical history.
[5] Heinrich Ewald, Geschichte Israels, vol. VII, p. 322; see also his review of Lagarde’s Analecta Syriaca in Göttinger Gelehrte Anzeigen, 1859, pp. 261–269.
