In the formative centuries of the Christian Church, the twin practices of catechesis and confirmation embodied a sacred pedagogy—a spiritual apprenticeship through which the soul was gradually shaped for new birth in Christ. As preparation and consummation of baptism, these rites linked instruction with illumination, and commitment with consecration, forging disciples not only in mind and heart but in the mystery of the Holy Spirit’s seal.
Literature
Prominent voices in the early Church left enduring legacies on the structure and theology of catechetical formation. Chief among them is Cyril of Jerusalem (315–386), whose Eighteen Catechetical Lectures (Κατηχήσεις φωτιζομένων) and Five Mystagogical Lectures—addressed to the newly baptized—form one of the richest liturgical and doctrinal sources of antiquity. The best edition remains that of Touttée (1720), reprinted in Migne’s Patrologia Graeca, vol. 33.
Augustine’s De Catechizandis Rudibus stands as a foundational text in the theory and art of religious instruction.
Among modern and medieval commentators, key contributions include:
– Bingham, Antiquities, Book X, chapter 2
– Zezschwitz, System der christlichen kirchlichen Katechetik (Leipzig, 1863–72)
– Joh. Mayer (R.C.), Geschichte des Katechumenats und der Katechese in den ersten sechs Jahrhunderten (Kempten, 1866)
– A. Weiss (R.C.), Die altkirchliche Pädagogik (Freiburg, 1869)
– Fr. X. Funk (R.C.), Die Katechumenatsklassen des christlichen Altertums, in Theologische Quartalschrift (Tübingen, 1883)
1. The Catechumenate: Preparation for Baptism
The catechumenate—a structured period of instruction prior to baptism—was a vital institution of the early Church, tracing its roots to apostolic times. The Gospel of Luke describes Theophilus as one “instructed” (κατηχήθης) in the faith, and Acts mentions Apollos, who had been “instructed in the way of the Lord” (κατηχημένος). In a world dominated by paganism, where Christianity addressed primarily adult converts, the Church recognized the pastoral necessity of grounding candidates in the rudiments of faith before admitting them to the baptismal waters.
Teachers known as catechists—often presbyters or deacons—were entrusted with this sacred charge. Their role, though not a distinct office, was essential: they shaped the moral and doctrinal foundation upon which baptismal grace would rest.
In its original form, the catechumenate preceded baptism. But in later centuries, as infant baptism became prevalent, it followed baptism instead, eventually leading to the institution of confirmation. The catechumenate thus served both as a protective bulwark against unworthy admission and as a hospitable bridge from the world into the Church—an initiatory path from curiosity to conviction.
The catechumens (κατηχούμενοι), also known as hearers (ἀκροαταί), were not treated as unbelievers but as partial Christians. They were permitted to join in all public worship except for the sacraments. Their number included men and women of all social ranks and intellectual disciplines—philosophers, statesmen, and rhetoricians—among whom were Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Cyprian, Arnobius, and Lactantius, all of whom came to Christ in adulthood.
The Didache, an early Christian manual, devotes its first six chapters to a noble moral catechism, rooted largely in the Sermon on the Mount and designed as a preparatory path to baptism.
Contrary to the later tendency to divide catechumens into three or four classes, the original structure likely consisted of only one or two stages. Modern scholars (Suicer, Weiss, Funk) have shown that the broader division was borrowed in error from the penitential system, not the catechumenate itself.
The catechetical school of Alexandria gained renown for combining spiritual rigor with intellectual depth. There, catechesis ascended to an art form, and teachers like Origen and Clement contributed profoundly to the Church’s theological development.
The duration of instruction varied—some councils prescribed two years, others three—but flexibility prevailed. Those of sound character and evident sincerity could be baptized sooner, and those near death were admitted immediately.
2. Confirmation: The Seal of the Spirit
Confirmation originally formed an integral part of baptism, not a separate sacrament. It was performed through the laying on of hands and anointing various parts of the body with fragrant balsam oil—chrism—symbolizing consecration and the bestowal of the Holy Spirit. Through these gestures, the baptized were confirmed in grace and anointed for participation in the spiritual priesthood of believers.
Over time, especially with the rise of infant baptism, confirmation came to be separated from baptism and treated as an independent sacrament. Cyprian was the first to distinguish between “baptism with water” and “baptism with the Spirit,” treating them as two sacraments, though in his era the term “sacrament” was still used loosely to refer to any sacred rite or mystery.
By the third century, the Western Church restricted the administration of confirmation to bishops, citing Acts 8:17, where only the apostles laid hands on the baptized to bestow the Spirit. Bishops, viewed as the successors of the apostles, alone could confer this grace. The Eastern (Greek) Church, however, permitted presbyters and even deacons to confirm, preserving a more collegial approach.
The Anglican Church, following Latin precedent, retains the episcopal administration of confirmation.
Confirmation, or some form of personal confession of faith after instruction, came to be viewed as the necessary completion of infant baptism. While baptism conferred regeneration without the candidate’s knowledge, confirmation was seen as the moment of conscious appropriation—when the faith of the Church became the faith of the individual, sealed in the Holy Spirit.
