The period between the ascension of Christ and the reign of Trajan marks the twilight of the Apostolic age — a time when the Church grew quietly yet courageously in the shadow of imperial power. Though persecution was sporadic and inconsistent, it revealed both the indifference and the hostility of Rome to the new faith. The empire, while often politically tolerant, could not fully suppress its suspicion of this unyielding movement, whose allegiance to an invisible King and eternal kingdom challenged the visible structures of Caesar’s rule.
The First Emperors and the Nascent Church
Jesus Christ was born under Augustus, the first Roman Emperor, and was crucified during the reign of Tiberius (A.D. 14–37). According to Tertullian, a controversial and likely embellished tradition claims that Tiberius, alarmed by Pontius Pilate’s report concerning Christ’s crucifixion and resurrection, proposed to the Senate that Jesus be enrolled among the Roman gods — a proposal the Senate rejected. However, this account lacks firm historical support and rests solely on the testimony of later Christian writers.
Claudius (A.D. 41–54), in an edict around A.D. 53, expelled the Jews from Rome due to disturbances “impulsore Chresto,” according to Suetonius. The Christians, still largely associated with the Jewish community, suffered collateral effects. This was not targeted persecution, but rather imperial housekeeping against perceived social unrest.
The first violent confrontation between Rome and the Church occurred under Nero (A.D. 54–68), who, following the great fire of Rome in A.D. 64, sought a scapegoat to divert suspicion. He accused the Christians of arson and subjected them to gruesome punishments: crucifixions, burning, and exposure to wild beasts. This was less a systematic persecution of the Christian faith and more a monstrous indulgence of a deranged emperor — yet it revealed the fragile position of Christians in the imperial order. Nero’s cruelty became legendary, and among early Christians, a belief grew that he would return as the Antichrist.
A Lull in the Storm: The Intervening Emperors
The short and chaotic reigns of Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, followed by the more stable rules of Vespasian (A.D. 69–79) and Titus (A.D. 79–81), saw little to no imperial initiative against the Church. The destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 occurred under Titus, but this was a judgment upon rebellious Judea, not Christianity as such. The Church during this period appears to have enjoyed a measure of unofficial toleration, growing in strength beneath the surface of Roman notice.
Domitian: The Return of Tyranny
The calm was broken by Domitian (A.D. 81–96), a paranoid autocrat who insisted on being addressed as Dominus et Deus (“Lord and God”). Under his rule, Christianity became a political offense, viewed as a rejection of the imperial cult and the Roman gods. Many Christians were executed or exiled, including prominent individuals of senatorial rank. Among them was Flavius Clemens, the emperor’s own cousin and a Roman consul, condemned for “atheism” — a common Roman charge against monotheists who refused to honor the state gods.
Domitilla, Clemens’ wife, was banished, and numerous other believers suffered similarly. According to Hegesippus (as cited in Eusebius), Domitian even ordered the arrest of relatives of Jesus, namely the grandsons of Judas, the “brother of the Lord.” When questioned, these rustic Galilean descendants affirmed that the kingdom of Christ was not of this world, but would come only at the final judgment. Impressed by their poverty and simplicity, Domitian released them.
Later Christian tradition places the banishment of the Apostle John to the island of Patmos during this reign, though earlier sources suggest it occurred under Nero. Tertullian records a legendary attempt to execute John in Rome by immersing him in boiling oil — from which he miraculously emerged unscathed. Domitian’s persecution also reportedly included the martyrdom of Andrew, Mark, Onesimus, and Dionysius the Areopagite, though these accounts rest more on martyrological tradition than confirmed historical fact.
Nerva’s Brief Reprieve
Domitian’s successor, Nerva (A.D. 96–98), was a welcome contrast. A man of moderation and legal integrity, he quickly recalled the exiles and refused to prosecute Christians merely for their faith. Although he did not formally recognize Christianity as a legal religion (religio licita), he ceased to treat it as a capital offense. His brief reign offered a much-needed reprieve and set the tone for the more legally defined persecutions that would follow under Trajan.
The Church in Transition
Before Trajan, Roman persecution of the Church was more reactive than systematic, more the product of individual imperial temperaments than imperial policy. Yet during this time, the Church clarified its identity, separating itself from its Jewish roots in the eyes of both Rome and Israel. The blood of martyrs, from Nero to Domitian, was already becoming the seed of the Church. Faithful witness, even unto death, was laying the foundation for an unshakable spiritual kingdom — one that no earthly power could destroy.
