In the intellectual crucible of second-century Asia Minor, two powerful Christian voices rose to meet the philosophical, theological, and imperial challenges of the age—Apolinarius of Hierapolis and Miltiades. Though the works of both men are now largely lost to history, their influence lingers in the echoes of early apologetics, polemics, and doctrinal boundary-setting. From their pens flowed impassioned defenses of Christian truth, sharp rebukes against heresy, and courageous appeals to Roman authority. Together, they helped forge the moral and theological backbone of the emerging Church in an age of uncertainty and persecution.
Apolinarius of Hierapolis
Claudius Apolinarius,¹ bishop of Hierapolis in Phrygia and likely a successor of Papias, stands among the most vigorous apologists of the second century. Active between AD 160 and 180, he engaged deeply in the theological controversies of his time, particularly the Montanist movement and the Paschal debates concerning the celebration of Easter.
Eusebius, who esteemed him highly, mentions him alongside Melito of Sardis as one of the orthodox luminaries of the period. He records at least four of Apolinarius’ many works, all of which are now lost:
– An Apology addressed to Emperor Marcus Aurelius (before AD 174)
– Five Books Against the Greeks
– Two Books on Truth
– Two Books Against the Jews
Later writings included a treatise Against the Heresy of the Phrygians—a pointed refutation of the Montanist sect, written around 172 AD.² His opposition to Montanism suggests theological caution, yet he also resisted the Quartodeciman observance of Easter, which Melito defended.³
Jerome recognized Apolinarius as a man deeply learned in pagan literature, yet also described him as a Chiliast—a designation that appears dubious, given his anti-Montanist stance.⁴ Photius praised his style, and later tradition enrolled him among the saints.⁵
Apologetic Themes and Lost Writings
Apolinarius’ writings likely combined classical erudition with a robust Christian polemic. Though we possess no complete texts, two fragments are preserved in the Chronicon Paschale. Photius also mentions copies of three apologetic treatises: To the Greeks on Piety (πρὸς Ἕλληνας περὶ εὐσεβείας), On Truth (περὶ ἀληθείας), and perhaps a third work of identical identity under a different title. These fragments, preserved in Routh’s Reliquiae Sacrae (I.159–174), reveal a mind formed by both Scripture and philosophy.²
Miltiades: A Forgotten Voice
Miltiades is a shadowy yet notable figure in the Christian apologetic tradition of the late second century. All of his writings are lost, yet Eusebius lists three significant works:
– An Apology addressed “to the rulers of the world”
– A Treatise Against the Greeks
– A Treatise Against the Jews⁶
Unfortunately, Eusebius provides no excerpts or details. Jerome likewise names him in his De Viris Illustribus, though again without elaboration. Tertullian places Miltiades chronologically between Justin Martyr and Irenaeus, and refers to him with the title ecclesiarum sophista.⁷ The designation may denote respect as a rhetorician or philosopher, though Harnack detects a hint of disapproval, suggesting it may have been tinged with irony or criticism.
The relationship of Miltiades to the Montanist movement remains obscure. While some have conjectured Montanist sympathies, the prevailing evidence suggests he was more likely an opponent of the ecstatic and apocalyptic tendencies of that sect.
Footnotes
¹ Greek authors use the spelling “Apolinarius”; Latin writers usually “Apollinaris” or “Apollinarius.” Not to be confused with other historical figures of similar names, including the legendary St. Apollinaris of Ravenna, or the heretical Apollinaris of Laodicea. See Smith and Wace, I.134ff.
² Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. IV.27; Jerome, De Viris Illustribus, 26. Photius records additional titles, likely duplicative. See also Routh, I.159–174; Donaldson, III.243; Harnack, Texte, I.232–239.
³ See the earlier discussion of the Paschal Controversy; cf. Chronicon Paschale, I.13.
⁴ Jerome (De Viris Illustribus, 18; Commentary on Ezekiel, ch. 36) lists Irenaeus and Apollinaris as the first and last of the Greek Chiliasts. This appears erroneous, as Barnabas and Papias predated Irenaeus, and others followed long after.
⁵ Listed in Acta Sanctorum (Feb. II.4); see also Wetzer und Welte, 2nd ed., I.1086.
⁶ Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. V.17; Jerome, De Viris Illustribus, 39. See also Harnack, Texte, I.278–282; Salmon in Smith and Wace, III.916.
⁷ Tertullian, Adversus Valentinianos, ch. 5. The phrase ecclesiarum sophista is variously interpreted as “church rhetorician” or “controversial sophist.” Harnack leans toward a pejorative reading.
