The final chapter of Roman persecution unfolded not in triumph but in surrender. Heathenism, mortally wounded by the failure of Diocletian’s grand purge, issued a last gasp for survival—and failed. Christianity, no longer a suspect sect, began its ascension as the faith of empire.
I. Galerius’ Edict of Toleration (311)
The Dying Emperor’s Last Act: Galerius, the chief architect of the Diocletian persecution, ravaged by disease and despair, issued from Nicomedia in 311 a sweeping edict of toleration. Co-signed by Constantine and Licinius, the decree:
- Admitted failure in suppressing Christianity.
- Granted Christians the right to assemble peacefully.
- Requested their prayers—for the welfare of emperors and the empire.
The Language: A curious mix of condescension and desperation. The edict derided the “obstinacy” of Christians, then begged their God for imperial favor. It marks a profound political shift—from repression to reluctant recognition.
“They may once more hold their meetings, provided they disturb not the public order… Let them pray to their god for our welfare and that of the state.”
Effect: This document functionally ended state-sponsored persecution across most of the empire.
II. The Milan Edict of Constantine and Licinius (313)
Backdrop: Constantine, rising from the West, had already triumphed over Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge (Oct. 27, 312), marching under the banner of the Cross. In early 313, he met Licinius in Milan. Together they issued a new and bolder edict of toleration—one that:
- Affirmed full religious freedom for all citizens.
- Ordered the restoration of all confiscated Christian property.
- Commanded governors to execute these measures immediately.
Key Principle Introduced: For the first time in history, an empire acknowledged that religious faith must be free, voluntary, and uncoerced:
“We grant to Christians and to all others full authority to follow whatever religion each has desired… that the divine and heavenly power may confer upon us and all who live under our rule the blessing of peace.”
Implementation: Even Maximin Daza, a fierce persecutor, was compelled to assent shortly before his suicide (313).
III. From Neutrality to Favor
Shift in Tone: Whereas Galerius merely tolerated Christianity, Constantine’s edict moved further:
- From passive non-interference → to active protection.
- From grudging concession → to legal recognition.
Significance: This was not merely a political act, but the first public affirmation of the right of conscience—that faith cannot be imposed by force. Religion must spring from conviction, not compulsion.
IV. Aftermath and Legacy
Constantine’s Rise: After defeating Licinius in 323, Constantine became sole ruler. He never outlawed paganism but clearly favored Christianity. His reign:
- Ended the era of persecution.
- Marked the Church’s ascendancy in public life.
- Initiated protective but not yet exclusive establishment.
Gibbon’s Contrast: From Nero, who ignited Christian bodies as torches in his garden, to Constantine, seated among maimed bishops at Nicaea—Christianity had turned the world upside down.
But a Warning: Later emperors, particularly Theodosius I (r. 379–395), would forget the liberty granted in 313. Orthodoxy became imperial policy, and heresy—a political crime.
V. A Revolution Like No Other
The Transition: The victory of the Cross was not merely military, but moral. What Constantine enacted was the fruit of centuries of Christian witness, martyrdom, and quiet transformation of culture. Diocletian’s persecution failed because it attacked an idea that had already conquered Rome from within.
The Motto: “Hoc signo vinces” — “By this sign, you will conquer.”
What Had Changed?
- The Roman gods had lost their grip on the heart of the empire.
- The Church had become the soul of civilization.
- Constantine, ever the realist, simply followed history’s current.
This was not a capitulation. It was the fulfillment of a prophecy: that the stone cut without hands would crush all empires, and grow into a mountain filling the earth.
Thus ends the age of persecution. The age of imperial Christianity begins.
