The Eucharist stood as the apex of early Christian worship—an act at once profoundly sacred and supremely communal, through which believers participated in the redemptive mystery of Christ. In this celebration, the Church offered not only bread and wine but her entire self, uniting the memory of the crucified and risen Lord with present thanksgiving, praise, and communion. The liturgy was marked by simplicity, sincerity, and spiritual power, long before the development of fixed forms and elaborate ritual. What we glimpse in the ante-Nicene era is a Eucharistic life that flowed directly from apostolic testimony and the living experience of the Spirit.
Justin Martyr’s Witness: A Glimpse into Early Practice
One of the earliest detailed accounts of the Eucharist comes from Justin Martyr, whose second-century Apology captures the primitive beauty of the rite. He describes how, following the prayers of the catechumenate, the faithful exchanged a kiss of peace. Then bread and a cup containing wine mixed with water were presented to the presiding bishop. Lifting his voice in praise, he offered thanks to the Father through the name of the Son and the Spirit. The congregation responded with a resounding “Amen,” and the deacons distributed the consecrated gifts to those present—and even to those absent, by bringing the elements to their homes.
Justin emphasizes that this Eucharistic food was no ordinary fare. Only baptized believers who lived in obedience to Christ were permitted to partake. The Church did not treat this as common bread or drink, but as a sacred reality: “For as Jesus Christ, our Savior, became incarnate by the Word of God… so also we have been taught that the food which has been eucharistized by the word of prayer… is the flesh and blood of that incarnate Jesus.” Here, sacrament and incarnation converge in the Church’s theological vision.
Freedom and Simplicity Before the Nicene Era
We must not anachronistically impose later liturgical structures onto this early period. The elaborate rites of the Nicene age, though widespread and relatively uniform in core features, had not yet crystallized. Even the so-called Clementine liturgy—found in the eighth book of the Apostolic Constitutions—likely originated no earlier than the fourth century. During the fierce Diocletian persecution, there is no evidence of fixed or written liturgies. Yet the seeds of the later Eucharistic forms were already germinating by the late second century.
The Didache preserves some of the earliest Eucharistic prayers: three distinct thanksgivings—one for the cup, one for the broken bread, and one for God’s mercies—simple, heartfelt expressions of gratitude. These early prayers reflect the Church’s formative years, when prayer was extemporaneous yet reverent, eventually assuming a more stable structure through repetition.
The Structure of the Eucharistic Service
By the mid-third century, the Eucharist had assumed a recognizable structure. It was celebrated regularly on Sundays—often even daily in some regions—and was considered the heart of Christian worship. The service commenced after the catechumens had been dismissed, beginning with the kiss of peace. This gesture, rooted in apostolic practice, symbolized the fellowship of believers in a world marred by estrangement. Men greeted men, and women greeted women, affirming their union in the love of Christ.
The Eucharistic service proper comprised two principal acts: the oblation and the communion. In the oblation, the deacons presented the offerings of the people—not only for the Eucharistic celebration but also for the support of the clergy and the poor. In the communion, the faithful received the consecrated elements as a renewal of their union with Christ. Both acts were framed by prayers and hymns, echoing the seraphic hymn of Isaiah 6:3—“Holy, holy, holy is the LORD of hosts.”
The Prayers of the Eucharist
The Eucharistic prayers, though varied in length and order, generally included:
- General Thanksgiving: Acknowledging God’s blessings in creation and redemption, often ending with the Sanctus.
- Consecratory Prayer: Invoking the Holy Spirit (epiklesis) to sanctify both the congregation and the elements, with the words of institution and the Lord’s Prayer.
- Intercessory Prayers: Offered on behalf of the entire world, especially the Church, rooted in Christ’s once-for-all sacrifice.
Responses punctuated the service: “Amen,” “Kyrie eleison,” and the ancient dialogical summons “Sursum corda” (“Lift up your hearts”) with the response “We lift them to the Lord.” These echoes of Jewish and apostolic liturgical rhythm nurtured congregational engagement and reverence.
All prayers were spoken aloud, not read from books. Yet even spontaneous prayer, when repeated in community, tends toward liturgical form.
The Elements and Their Distribution
The elements consisted of leavened bread—common bread, as Justin called it, though sanctified in meaning—and wine mixed with water, a custom inherited from ancient Mediterranean practice. The bread and wine were administered by the clergy or deacons, placed in the open hands of the communicants. As they received the elements, the ministers declared, “The body of Christ,” and “The blood of Christ, the cup of life.” The recipients responded with a solemn “Amen.” The congregation stood during the entire act, in keeping with the joyous and resurrection-oriented tone of the day.
Following the service, deacons brought the Eucharist to the sick and imprisoned. In North Africa especially, some believers kept portions of the consecrated bread at home for daily devotions. This domestic Eucharist, often under one species (bread only), marked an early form of the communio sub una specie. In the same region, infant communion—administered with wine alone—was practiced in Cyprian’s time and survives today in the Eastern Church, though it contradicts the Pauline injunction for self-examination (1 Corinthians 11:28).
From Love Feast to Morning Sacrament
Originally, the Eucharist was closely connected with the Agape, or love feast, celebrated in the evening in remembrance of the Last Supper. However, by the early second century, the two observances were increasingly separated, with the Eucharist moving to the morning and the Agape retained only on special feast days. Tertullian defends the Agape against pagan slander, emphasizing its piety, modesty, and charitable spirit. Participants gathered not for indulgence, but for spiritual edification and mutual aid. They sang hymns, prayed, shared food, and supported the needy. Augustine recalls how his mother Monica would attend these feasts, bringing baskets of food to share.
Over time, abuses crept in, and the Agape lost its innocence. By the fourth century, it was formally prohibited, its memory preserved only in the early love and simplicity of the apostolic age.
The Lasting Legacy
Though customs have shifted, and theological interpretations have multiplied, the essence of the Eucharist endures across all Christian traditions. It remains the Church’s living memory of the crucified and risen Christ—a proclamation of His atoning sacrifice and a communion of His redeeming love. Alongside baptism, it is one of the two great ordinances that the Church has never relinquished. Rooted in history yet always present, simple in form yet inexhaustible in meaning, the Eucharist unites heaven and earth in the sacred fellowship of the redeemed.
