The life and legacy of the Apostle Paul have inspired centuries of inquiry, devotion, and controversy. Few figures in sacred history have left behind so rich a tapestry of primary sources, apocryphal traditions, critical scholarship, doctrinal analysis, and exegetical commentary. From the epistolary self-disclosures of Paul himself to imaginative legends that grew in his wake, from the rigorous studies of early churchmen to the monumental syntheses of modern scholars, the literature surrounding Paul forms a mountain range in the landscape of Christian thought. To study Paul is to peer into the very engine room of apostolic Christianity.
I. Sources
1. The Authentic Sources
Paul’s own epistles and the Acts of the Apostles (particularly Acts 9:1–30 and chapters 13–28) form the bedrock of any serious study of his life and theology. Among his writings, four epistles—Galatians, Romans, and First and Second Corinthians—stand as universally acknowledged pillars of Pauline authorship, even by the most demanding critics. Others, such as Philippians, Philemon, Colossians, and Ephesians, enjoy broad but not universal acceptance. The Pastoral Epistles—especially First Timothy and Titus—have been the subject of more scrutiny, yet they undeniably bear the stylistic and theological hallmarks of Pauline genius.
The internal harmony and subtle interconnections between Acts and the Epistles further testify to the historical authenticity of both sources.
2. The Legendary and Apocryphal Sources
Beyond canonical texts, numerous apocryphal writings embellish or fictionalize Paul’s life. Chief among them is the Acts of Paul and Thecla, extant in Greek, Syriac, and English. This story—celebrating celibacy and female asceticism—centers on Thecla, a noble virgin of Iconium converted by Paul at age seventeen. Despite being condemned to the flames and thrown to wild beasts, she emerges miraculously unharmed. Though its Gnostic origins and advocacy of female ecclesial authority led to ecclesiastical censure (as reported by Tertullian and Jerome), the work was later redacted and widely circulated in Catholic circles. In the Greek tradition, Thecla is honored as the first female martyr. Paul himself is described in vivid, almost mythical terms—short, bald, bow-legged, but full of divine grace, appearing alternately as man and angel.
Other texts include the fragmentary Acts of Paul (Πράξεις Παύλου), cited by Origen and Eusebius, which echo Gnostic motifs and were once attributed to St. Linus. The Acts of Peter and Paul, a Catholic redaction of an earlier Ebionite work, depict Paul’s arrival in Rome, his interaction with Peter and Simon Magus, and the respective martyrdoms of the two apostles. It is within this narrative that the legend of Domine quo vadis? and the tale of Perpetua are integrated.
In contrast, the Pseudo-Clementine Homilies offer a scathing caricature of Paul, likely portraying him under the alias of Simon Magus and portraying Peter as the true champion of uncorrupted Christianity—a Judaizing polemic reflective of intra-Christian tensions in the second century.
The spurious Correspondence between Paul and Seneca, though often copied, is stylistically poor and riddled with historical inaccuracies. Its aim was to align Stoic wisdom with Christian doctrine and to lend prestige to Paul through association with Rome’s most eminent philosopher. Despite the fact that Gallio, Seneca’s brother, was governor of Achaia during Paul’s time in Corinth (Acts 18:12–16), there is no historical evidence that Paul and Seneca ever met. For studies exploring this literary fiction, see Fleury (1853), Aubertin (1887), Baur (1858, 1876), and Lightfoot’s excursus in his commentary on Philippians.
II. Biographical and Critical Works
Biographical treatments of Paul span centuries and vary widely in tone and purpose. Bishop Pearson’s Annales Paulini (1688) remains a landmark work, while Lord Lyttleton’s apologetic classic, The Conversion and Apostleship of St. Paul (1747), continues to resonate with seekers and scholars alike. William Paley’s Horae Paulinae (1790) still holds apologetic value through its masterful comparison of the Epistles with Acts.
The 19th century yielded a host of influential German and French works: Hemsen and Schrader’s rationalistic studies, Baur’s epoch-making Paulus (translated by Allan Menzies), and Renan’s imaginative but error-laden Saint Paul. Baur, founder of the Tübingen School, revolutionized Pauline scholarship by framing Paul as the hinge figure in early Church conflicts—between Judaic Christianity and a nascent Gentile universalism.
Among English-language biographies, Conybeare and Howson’s Life and Epistles of St. Paul (1853), Lewin’s richly illustrated two-volume work (1875), and Canon Farrar’s eloquent Life and Work of St. Paul (1879) remain standard references. W. M. Taylor’s Paul as a Missionary (1881) adds practical depth to the apostle’s missional labors. Devotional reflections, such as Adolphe Monod’s six sermons and Besser’s warm treatment (trans. by Bultmann), enrich the spiritual legacy of the Apostle.
These works, along with contributions by Neander, Lechler, Thiersch, Lange, Schaff, and Pressensé, offer indispensable windows into the complex and inspired life of the Apostle to the Gentiles.
III. Chronological Studies
Chronology plays a crucial role in reconstructing Paul’s missionary timeline. Thomas Lewin’s Fasti Sacri (1865) and Wieseler’s Chronologie des apostolischen Zeitalters (1848) provide meticulous tables and analysis spanning from 70 B.C. to A.D. 70.
IV. Doctrinal and Exegetical Studies
The theological development of Paul’s thought has been the subject of penetrating studies. L. Usteri and A. P. Dähne explored the evolution of Paul’s doctrinal system. Lipsius focused specifically on justification, while Holsten analyzed Pauline Christology, especially the significance of Paul’s Damascus vision and his understanding of σάρξ (flesh). The Catholic theologian Simar contributed an orthodox interpretation in Die Theologie des heil. Paulus (1864).
Ethical and Christological reflections by Ernesti and R. Schmidt, respectively, probe the moral and theological heart of Pauline doctrine. Matthew Arnold’s St. Paul and Protestantism offered a provocative reading through the lens of 19th-century liberalism. Irons’ Bampton Lectures (Christianity as taught by St. Paul) and Sabatier’s philosophical biography both highlight the coherence of Paul’s worldview.
Pfleiderer’s Der Paulinismus (1873) and his later Urchristenthum (1887) present an evolutionary view of early Christian thought, positioning Paul as a theological innovator. His Hibbert Lectures were translated into English, bringing his critical insights to a wider audience.
Weizsäcker’s Das Apostolische Zeitalter (1886) and Bethge’s work on Pauline speeches in Acts (1887) further enrich the doctrinal literature.
V. Commentaries
Commentators on Paul’s letters are legion. Comprehensive expositors include Calvin, Beza, Estius, Cornelius a Lapide, Grotius, Bengel, Olshausen, De Wette, Meyer, Lange, Ewald, Hofmann, Reuss, Alford, Wordsworth, Ellicott, and Schaff. P. J. Gloag’s Introduction to the Pauline Epistles (1874) remains a useful guide.
Specialized works on individual epistles abound. On Romans, one finds monumental commentaries by Tholuck, Fritzsche, Philippi (translated by Banks), Stuart, Turner, Hodge, and Godet. Corinthians has been addressed by Neander, Stanley, Heinrici, and Edwards. Galatians receives focused treatment from Luther, Wieseler, Holsten, and Lightfoot. On Ephesians, Harless, Stier, Hodge, and Eadie offer rich insights.
Other epistles, such as Colossians, Philemon, and the Pastoral Letters, have drawn the attention of Bleek, Ellicott, Lightfoot, Holtzmann, Fairbairn, and Weiss. The Acts of the Apostles—especially its latter chapters concerning Paul—are expertly treated by De Wette, Meyer, Hackett, Gloag, and others.
