The rich and contentious development of Christian church polity has produced a vast and multifaceted body of literature—stretching from the apostolic era to the 19th century. This scholarship reflects not merely ecclesiastical theorizing but the living pulse of the Church as it struggled, adapted, and asserted its structure amidst changing historical and theological landscapes. From apostolic letters to episcopal treatises, from the fires of Reformation controversy to the calm analysis of historical criticism, these works form the backbone of any serious inquiry into the nature and offices of the Church.
I. Primary Sources from the Apostolic Age
The earliest outlines of Christian church government are found in the New Testament itself. The Acts of the Apostles reveal the initial formative stage, while the Pastoral Epistles (1 and 2 Timothy, Titus) present a more developed framework—often regarded as indicative of a transitional moment in ecclesial structure, circa A.D. 60–70.
Critical voices such as F. C. Baur (Die sogenannten Pastoralbriefe des Ap. Paulus, 1835) and Holtzmann (Die Pastoralbriefe, 1880) deny the Pauline authorship of these letters, arguing for a post-apostolic origin. However, the ecclesiastical guidelines contained therein reflect a period still within the living memory of the apostles.
Other canonical texts, including 1 Corinthians 12:28, Ephesians 4:11, and the apocalyptic messages to the seven churches in Revelation 2–3, offer important glimpses into early church offices and functions. Beyond the New Testament, post-apostolic writings such as the Didache, the Epistles of Clement and Ignatius, further elaborate the forms and responsibilities of ministers in the early Church.
II. General Historical Treatments
Several overarching histories of the Apostolic Age and early Church provide contextual frameworks for understanding ecclesiastical polity:
– Neander, Thiersch, Lechler, Lange, and Schaff include substantial treatments of church offices and governance within their broader historical works.
– Particularly notable are the discussions found in Schaff’s History of the Apostolic Church (American edition, pp. 495–545), which balances historical detail with theological reflection.
– Vitringa remains a classic reference, especially for his insight into the Jewish synagogue as a formative model for Christian structures.
III. Works by Ecclesiastical Tradition
1. Anglican and Episcopal Writers
– Richard Hooker, Ecclesiastical Polity (1594; ed. Keble, 1836): A foundational text for Anglican ecclesiology, balancing reason, tradition, and Scripture.
– Joseph Bingham, Origines Ecclesiasticae (1710–1722): A massive and meticulous study of early Christian practice, still consulted for its breadth.
– William Palmer, A Treatise on the Church of Christ (1838; Amer. ed. 1841): Anglo-Catholic in tone, with detailed argumentation.
– Bishop Kaye, Account of the External Discipline and Government of the Church (1855): A restrained yet informative summary.
– J. B. Lightfoot, The Christian Ministry (Excur. to Philippians, 1868–73): A landmark essay, fair-minded and scholarly.
– Charles Wordsworth, The Outlines of the Christian Ministry (1872): High Church Anglican approach.
– Henry Cotherill, The Genesis of the Church (1872): Ecclesiological reflection with historical grounding.
– G. A. Jacob, Ecclesiastical Polity of the New Testament (1871; 5th Amer. ed. 1879): A Low Church defense of New Testament simplicity.
– Charles Gore, The Ministry of the Church (1889): An Anglo-Catholic interpretation of ministry in historical perspective.
2. Presbyterian and Reformed Writers
– Thomas Cartwright, Directory of Church Government (1583; pub. 1644): The father of English Presbyterianism.
– Smectymnuus (1641): A collective defense of Presbyterianism by Stephen Marshall, Edmund Calamy, Thomas Young, Matthew Newcomen, and William Spurstow.
– A Vindication of the Presbyterian Government and Ministry (1650), and Jus Divinum Ministerii Evangelici (1654): Both influential in the Westminster period.
– Samuel Miller, Letters on the Christian Ministry (1830): Classic American Presbyterian argument.
– James P. Wilson, The Primitive Government of Christian Churches (1833): A scholarly and capable presentation.
– Albert Barnes, Organization and Government of the Apostolic Church (1855): Practical and didactic.
– Charles Hodge, Essays on Primitive Church Offices (1858), and Discussions in Church Polity (1878): Rigorous Princeton theology applied to church structure.
– James Bannerman, The Church of Christ (1868, 2 vols.): Comprehensive theological treatment of church government.
3. Lutheran and Continental Scholars
– W. Löhe, Die N.T.lichen Aemter (1848), and Drei Bücher von der Kirche (1845): Thoughtful Lutheran reflections on office and congregation.
– Franz Delitzsch, Vier Bücher von der Kirche (1847): Deep theological and biblical analysis.
– J. Köstlin, Das Wesen der Kirche (1854; 2nd ed. 1872): Focused on the nature of the Church in the New Testament.
– K. Lechler, Die N.T. Lehre vom heil. Amte (1857): Explores the theological grounding of office.
– W. Beyschlag, Die christliche Gemeindeverfassung im Zeitalter des N. Testaments (1876): Prize-winning study on NT-era church government.
– C. Weizsäcker, Die Versammlungen der ältesten Christengemeinden (1876), and later in Apostolisches Zeitalter (1886): Illuminates early congregational life.
4. Roman Catholic and Broad Church Writers
– Johann Adam Möhler, Die Einheit der Kirche (1825; ed. 1844): A brilliant early Catholic theology of the Church.
– Richard Rothe, Die Anfänge der christlichen Kirche (1837): A Protestant reply to Möhler, analytical and nuanced.
– F. C. Baur, Ueber den Ursprung des Episcopates (1838): Opposes Rothe’s early dating of episcopacy.
– Albrecht Ritschl, Die Entstehung der altkatholischen Kirche (1857): Purely critical and historical, with rich source material.
– Edwin Hatch, The Organization of the Early Christian Churches (Bampton Lectures, 1880; ed. 1881): A deeply researched argument that ecclesiastical forms arose gradually from social patterns. Translated into German by Adolf Harnack (1883).
– Stanley, Christian Institutions (1881): Chapter X addresses clergy within broader institutional development.
5. Independent and Congregationalist Writers
– Samuel Davidson, The Ecclesiastical Polity of the New Testament (1848; 2nd ed. 1854): Historical and exegetical.
– Ralph Wardlaw, Congregational Independency (1848): A defense of independent polity over episcopacy and presbyterianism.
– Henry M. Dexter, Congregationalism (4th ed., Boston, 1876): Practical, historical, and polemical.
– E. Mellor, Priesthood in the Light of the New Testament (1876): Nonconformist critique of sacramental priesthood.
– J. B. Paton, The Origin of the Priesthood in the Christian Church (1877): Argues against the historic rise of sacerdotalism.
6. Modern Articles and Periodical Contributions
– Important essays appeared in The Expositor (London, 1887–1888) by scholars including W. Sanday, Adolf Harnack, William Milligan, Charles Gore, George Salmon, and others. These essays reflect a broad spectrum of ecclesiastical views and critical methods.
Shepherded by Scripture
The literature on church polity is immense, diverse, and often polemical, reflecting the enduring significance of how the body of Christ is to be ordered, governed, and ministered. Though the voices differ, the quest remains the same: to discern the shape of the Church as willed by her Lord, manifested in her apostolic foundations, and embodied faithfully through the ages.
