Montanism, a vibrant and controversial movement in the second-century Church, provoked both fierce opposition and deep fascination. Arising from the fervent prophetic claims of Montanus and his female companions Prisca and Maximilla, this movement demanded renewed holiness, apocalyptic vigilance, and an uncompromising moral rigor. The literature surrounding Montanism—both supportive and adversarial—offers a vivid portrait of early Christian diversity, revealing theological tensions, ecclesiastical debates, and the struggle to define spiritual authority within the Church’s evolving tradition.
Primary Sources
The foundational materials on Montanism are largely preserved in fragments quoted or summarized by later writers, especially those opposing the movement. Chief among them are the prophetic utterances of Montanus, Prisca, and Maximilla, scattered throughout patristic literature and systematically gathered by F. Münter in his Effata et Oracula Montanistarum (1829), and more critically compiled by G. Nathanael Bonwetsch in his Geschichte des Montanismus, pp. 197–200.
The most substantial and sympathetic firsthand evidence comes from Tertullian’s later writings (after A.D. 201), composed after his own conversion to Montanism. These include:
- De Corona Militis
- De Fuga in Persecutione
- De Cultu Feminarum
- De Virginibus Velandis
- De Exhortatione Castitatis
- De Monogamia
- De Paradiso
- De Jejuniis
- De Pudicitia
- De Spectaculis
- De Spe Fidelium
Although Tertullian’s seven books On Ecstasy, mentioned by Jerome, are unfortunately lost, references to the “New Prophecy” and the Paraclete’s dispensation permeate even his polemical and doctrinal works (e.g., Adversus Marcionem, Adversus Valentinianos, Adversus Praxean, De Anima, De Resurrectione Carnis).
Additional early references appear in Irenaeus (Adversus Haereses III.11.9; IV.33.6–7), though his testimony is somewhat ambiguous. Eusebius (Ecclesiastical History V.3), Epiphanius (Panarion, Haereses 48–49), and Jerome contribute further witness, often through the lens of heresiological critique.
Several anti-Montanist treatises—those of Apollinaris of Hierapolis, Melito of Sardes, Miltiades (notably his περὶ τοῦ μὴ δεῖν προφήτην ἐν ἐκστάσει λαλεῖν), Apollonius, Serapion, Gaius, and an anonymous writer cited by Eusebius—have been lost to history but are known through citations and summaries. Soyres (pp. 3–24) and Bonwetsch (pp. 16–55) offer meticulous reconstructions of these vanished sources.
Modern Scholarly Literature
The controversy over Montanism has attracted scholarly attention for centuries, oscillating between condemnation, rehabilitation, and nuanced interpretation.
Defensive and Sympathetic Accounts:
- Theophil Wernsdorf’s Commentatio de Montanistis (1781) presents Montanism as compatible with early Christian doctrine and unjustly vilified. This revisionist position found resonance in Arnold’s earlier Kirchen- und Ketzerhistorie, and in the more measured assessments of Mosheim and Soyres.
- Neander’s Antignosticus (1825) and his Church History (1843, II.877–908) mark a turning point, offering a philosophically rich and evenhanded interpretation of Montanism as the realistic antithesis to Gnosticism’s idealism.
- John De Soyres’ Montanism and the Primitive Church (1878), a Hulsean Prize Essay, is both accessible and scholarly, complete with a helpful chronology.
- G. Nathanael Bonwetsch’s Die Geschichte des Montanismus (1881), remains the definitive monograph on the movement, distinguished by its clarity, comprehensiveness, and critical precision.
Philosophical and Theological Analyses:
- A. Schwegler’s Der Montanismus und die christliche Kirche des 2ten Jahrhunderts (1841), though influenced by the Tübingen School’s speculative historicism, provocatively reframes Montanism as a new epoch of revelation through the Paraclete, while mistakenly denying the historical existence of Montanus.
- F. C. Baur, in Das Wesen des Montanismus (1851) and Geschichte der Christlichen Kirche (1863), refines Schwegler’s thesis but shifts emphasis to doctrinal conflict, particularly Montanism’s opposition to Gnosticism and rising episcopal centralization.
- Albrecht Ritschl, in Entstehung der altkatholischen Kirche (1857, pp. 402–550), highlights the ethical and practical ethos of Montanism, anchoring it within the broader moral transformation of early Christianity.
Studies on Tertullian and Montanist Practice:
- P. Gottwald’s De Montanismo Tertulliani (1862) and A. Réville’s studies in Revue des deux mondes (1864) and Nouvelle Revue de Théologie (1858) probe Tertullian’s unique appropriation of Montanist themes, blending rigorous ethics with pneumatological zeal.
- Emile Ströhlin’s Essai sur le Montanisme (1870) synthesizes much of the French scholarship on the subject.
Additional Noteworthy Contributions:
- R. A. Lipsius’ Zur Quellenkritik des Epiphanios (1865) and Die Quellen der ältesten Ketzergeschichte (1875) investigate the textual transmission and reliability of patristic reports.
- Renan’s literary exploration in Marc-Aurèle (1882, ch. XIII) and his essay Le Montanisme (1881) bring a romantic but insightful flair to the topic.
- W. Belck’s Geschichte des Montanismus (1883) and Hilgenfeld’s Ketzergeschichte des Urchristenthums (1884, pp. 560–600) provide further historical reconstructions grounded in rigorous Quellenforschung.
Encylopedic Treatments
The subject is ably summarized in several major encyclopedic works:
- Dr. Möller in Herzog, revised ed. Vol. X, pp. 255–262
- Bishop Hefele in Wetzer und Welte, Vol. VII, pp. 252–268
- Hefele’s Conciliengeschichte, revised ed. Vol. I, pp. 83 sqq.
- Dr. Salmond in Smith and Wace, Vol. III, pp. 935–945
One should also consult the literature on Tertullian (see §196, p. 818) to appreciate the depth of his transformation under Montanist influence and his enduring impact on Western Christian thought.
Early Christian Tensions
The literature on Montanism reflects the enduring fascination with a movement that stirred the second-century Church with its prophetic fervor, moral stringency, and apocalyptic expectations. Whether seen as heretical innovation or authentic renewal, Montanism remains a powerful lens through which to view early Christianity’s struggle between order and charisma, canon and Spirit, office and inspiration.
